1 00:00:05,260 --> 00:00:09,740 I use my mobile phone to send silent messages all the time. 2 00:00:09,740 --> 00:00:13,020 But what if I could control someone else's face? 3 00:00:14,500 --> 00:00:16,420 I'm sending quite a message there, aren't I? 4 00:00:16,420 --> 00:00:18,060 That looked a bit surprised. 5 00:00:18,060 --> 00:00:21,700 Now, our faces are extraordinarily powerful tools 6 00:00:21,700 --> 00:00:23,740 for silent communication. 7 00:00:23,740 --> 00:00:26,060 We can say a huge amount 8 00:00:26,060 --> 00:00:30,340 without using any sound or any speech at all. 9 00:00:30,340 --> 00:00:32,340 In this lecture, we're going to reveal 10 00:00:32,340 --> 00:00:34,140 why silent messages are one of the 11 00:00:34,140 --> 00:00:37,300 most powerful forms of communication on the planet, 12 00:00:37,300 --> 00:00:38,980 and why, for many animals, 13 00:00:38,980 --> 00:00:41,580 it can make the difference between life and death. 14 00:01:03,020 --> 00:01:04,540 Welcome to the second of 15 00:01:04,540 --> 00:01:07,700 the 2017 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures. 16 00:01:07,700 --> 00:01:09,820 I'm Professor Sophie Scott. 17 00:01:09,820 --> 00:01:14,140 Right now, I'm talking to you to get my message across with my voice. 18 00:01:14,140 --> 00:01:16,900 But like you just saw with my colleague's twitching face, 19 00:01:16,900 --> 00:01:19,700 not all communications are made with sounds. 20 00:01:19,700 --> 00:01:21,580 We, like many other animals, 21 00:01:21,580 --> 00:01:24,340 use our bodies to send silent messages 22 00:01:24,340 --> 00:01:26,420 about who we are, how we feel, 23 00:01:26,420 --> 00:01:29,340 what our intentions might really be. 24 00:01:29,340 --> 00:01:30,660 In this lecture, 25 00:01:30,660 --> 00:01:32,340 I'm going to give you an insight 26 00:01:32,340 --> 00:01:34,540 into this world of silent communication, 27 00:01:34,540 --> 00:01:38,740 and reveal how you can start to spot and decipher some of it. 28 00:01:40,660 --> 00:01:42,540 I'm going to start with what is probably 29 00:01:42,540 --> 00:01:44,140 the first way that any animals 30 00:01:44,140 --> 00:01:45,860 worked out how to communicate. 31 00:01:45,860 --> 00:01:47,780 That's using chemical messages. 32 00:01:47,780 --> 00:01:49,900 We would call those smells. 33 00:01:49,900 --> 00:01:55,140 I'm going to send your noses some information and you're going to know 34 00:01:55,140 --> 00:01:57,540 when that information's coming towards you 35 00:01:57,540 --> 00:01:59,140 because you'll see a smoke ring. 36 00:02:16,660 --> 00:02:18,620 Anybody tell me what that smelt like? 37 00:02:18,620 --> 00:02:20,900 There's something kind of sweet there, isn't there? 38 00:02:20,900 --> 00:02:22,340 There is a sort of sweet smell. 39 00:02:22,340 --> 00:02:24,140 I think it's supposed to be kind of like a 40 00:02:24,140 --> 00:02:25,780 candyfloss kind of smell, OK? 41 00:02:25,780 --> 00:02:27,820 That might suggest something edible, 42 00:02:27,820 --> 00:02:29,380 something edible's going on. 43 00:02:29,380 --> 00:02:32,020 Let's try a different smell. 44 00:02:36,540 --> 00:02:38,020 Ha-ha. 45 00:02:45,300 --> 00:02:48,140 You took a direct hit there. 46 00:02:48,140 --> 00:02:51,060 What do you think about that smell? 47 00:02:51,060 --> 00:02:53,180 Uh, poo. 48 00:02:53,180 --> 00:02:54,660 Do you like it? 49 00:02:54,660 --> 00:02:56,460 Yeah, it's great! 50 00:02:56,460 --> 00:02:57,820 I quite like it, 51 00:02:57,820 --> 00:02:59,300 it reminds me of home! 52 00:03:00,780 --> 00:03:02,700 Now, that was, indeed, the smell of poo. 53 00:03:02,700 --> 00:03:05,780 It's called skatole and it's a synthesised version of some of the 54 00:03:05,780 --> 00:03:09,900 molecules in poo and probably if you were to smell that, you might think, 55 00:03:09,900 --> 00:03:11,780 "I don't know if I do want to eat that food." 56 00:03:11,780 --> 00:03:14,540 You know, it's contaminated, there's information there. 57 00:03:14,540 --> 00:03:16,900 Now, slightly disturbingly, 58 00:03:16,900 --> 00:03:20,220 all smells are made of something physical. 59 00:03:20,220 --> 00:03:24,220 They are chemical molecules, they are literally parts of a thing, 60 00:03:24,220 --> 00:03:27,860 a body or an object that have been released into the air, 61 00:03:27,860 --> 00:03:31,820 and we detect those in our noses by chemical detectors. 62 00:03:31,820 --> 00:03:34,540 Sending messages with chemicals like smells 63 00:03:34,540 --> 00:03:37,140 is really a very basic form of communication. 64 00:03:37,140 --> 00:03:38,780 And that's because everything, 65 00:03:38,780 --> 00:03:42,660 from bacteria to blue whales, is made of chemicals. 66 00:03:42,660 --> 00:03:45,260 So, the simplest way to send a message is 67 00:03:45,260 --> 00:03:48,620 just leave some of those chemicals behind. 68 00:03:48,620 --> 00:03:50,700 A chemical that an organism uses to communicate 69 00:03:50,700 --> 00:03:51,940 with another member of the 70 00:03:51,940 --> 00:03:54,540 same species is called a pheromone, 71 00:03:54,540 --> 00:03:58,180 and this is any chemical that's released by one individual to affect 72 00:03:58,180 --> 00:04:00,420 another individual's behaviour. 73 00:04:00,420 --> 00:04:01,780 And amongst the animals, 74 00:04:01,780 --> 00:04:05,540 the absolute champion users of pheromones are insects. 75 00:04:05,540 --> 00:04:07,180 In fact, many insects rely 76 00:04:07,180 --> 00:04:11,260 completely on using smells to communicate with each other. 77 00:04:11,260 --> 00:04:12,820 To find out more, 78 00:04:12,820 --> 00:04:16,700 please welcome an expert in how insects use pheromone messaging. 79 00:04:16,700 --> 00:04:19,940 From Rothamsted Research, Dr Gia Aradottir. 80 00:04:25,420 --> 00:04:26,940 Hi. Hello, lovely to meet you. 81 00:04:26,940 --> 00:04:28,980 Nice to meet you. 82 00:04:28,980 --> 00:04:30,660 Now, if you could just step forward. 83 00:04:30,660 --> 00:04:33,660 Can you show us, what have you got in your hand there? 84 00:04:33,660 --> 00:04:36,620 So, here I have some aphids on a leaf. 85 00:04:36,620 --> 00:04:39,860 OK. They're very small, you won't be able to see them from there. 86 00:04:39,860 --> 00:04:43,620 But if I put them under the microscope here, hopefully, 87 00:04:43,620 --> 00:04:45,220 you can see them on the screen. 88 00:04:46,580 --> 00:04:48,500 Yep. 89 00:04:48,500 --> 00:04:52,460 Can you see these? So, these aphids are all mothers and daughters, 90 00:04:52,460 --> 00:04:54,060 they're all female, all girls. 91 00:04:54,060 --> 00:04:55,900 Aphid power! Aphid power. 92 00:04:55,900 --> 00:04:59,380 And they're happily feeding on the phloem on the leaf. 93 00:04:59,380 --> 00:05:01,980 OK. So, we've got a group of aphids. 94 00:05:01,980 --> 00:05:03,740 If they wanted to send an alarm signal, 95 00:05:03,740 --> 00:05:05,260 if something was going wrong, 96 00:05:05,260 --> 00:05:06,460 what would they do? 97 00:05:06,460 --> 00:05:09,500 If one of them is attacked by a predator, like a ladybird, 98 00:05:09,500 --> 00:05:13,460 for example, it will send a message, an alarm pheromone, 99 00:05:13,460 --> 00:05:14,900 out into the air, 100 00:05:14,900 --> 00:05:18,780 and that basically tells all of the other ones that they need to escape. 101 00:05:18,780 --> 00:05:20,860 Can we see that? Let's try. 102 00:05:20,860 --> 00:05:26,340 So, I have here some aphid alarm pheromone in this little vial. 103 00:05:26,340 --> 00:05:31,700 And if I put a tiny drop of alarm pheromone on the leaf next to the 104 00:05:31,700 --> 00:05:33,220 aphids, then, hopefully... 105 00:05:39,140 --> 00:05:40,180 Oh, they're off. 106 00:05:41,580 --> 00:05:43,220 Can you see? They all move away 107 00:05:43,220 --> 00:05:46,060 because they think that one of them is being attacked. 108 00:05:46,060 --> 00:05:48,620 Can we smell that? 109 00:05:48,620 --> 00:05:52,900 I can't. Let me put a little bit here on. 110 00:05:52,900 --> 00:05:54,500 The aphids all ran away but we didn't! 111 00:05:57,780 --> 00:06:00,140 No, I don't think I can smell that. This is one of the really 112 00:06:00,140 --> 00:06:02,020 interesting things about smells, isn't it? 113 00:06:02,020 --> 00:06:04,020 Because if you haven't got the 114 00:06:04,020 --> 00:06:05,780 chemical receptors to detect a smell, 115 00:06:05,780 --> 00:06:08,260 it's just not there, it's completely invisible to you. 116 00:06:08,260 --> 00:06:09,620 You are blind to it. 117 00:06:09,620 --> 00:06:11,900 So, this is a very private way of having a conversation. 118 00:06:11,900 --> 00:06:14,780 It is. And it's happening in our gardens, in our parks, 119 00:06:14,780 --> 00:06:16,540 and we have no idea what's going on. 120 00:06:17,700 --> 00:06:22,100 But if some other animal could learn about that message, 121 00:06:22,100 --> 00:06:24,700 could they start to intercept this information? 122 00:06:24,700 --> 00:06:26,860 Yeah, nature is so clever. 123 00:06:26,860 --> 00:06:29,220 So, predators have already learned 124 00:06:29,220 --> 00:06:32,380 how to recognise the alarm pheromone of the aphid. 125 00:06:32,380 --> 00:06:34,220 They are basically eavesdropping on 126 00:06:34,220 --> 00:06:36,700 the communication between the aphids. 127 00:06:36,700 --> 00:06:39,780 This alarm pheromone tells them that there is a prey there, 128 00:06:39,780 --> 00:06:42,900 there's an aphid that they can go and eat, for example. 129 00:06:42,900 --> 00:06:45,060 What kind of predator do we mean? 130 00:06:45,060 --> 00:06:47,220 So, we have parasitic wasps, 131 00:06:47,220 --> 00:06:49,740 and I've got some here in this little Petri dish. 132 00:06:49,740 --> 00:06:51,700 Manage your anxiety, they're really small, 133 00:06:51,700 --> 00:06:53,780 I don't think they'll go after us. 134 00:06:53,780 --> 00:06:56,180 They're very, very small and they only go for aphids. 135 00:06:57,900 --> 00:07:00,540 Let's see if we can find one. 136 00:07:00,540 --> 00:07:04,700 So, the wasps are picking up on the communication between the aphids. 137 00:07:04,700 --> 00:07:06,380 They're listening in? They are. 138 00:07:06,380 --> 00:07:07,900 To the signals from the pheromones? 139 00:07:07,900 --> 00:07:09,940 Yes. Absolutely. 140 00:07:09,940 --> 00:07:11,620 Is that an aphid? That's an aphid. 141 00:07:11,620 --> 00:07:13,500 Oh, dear, is it at terrible risk? 142 00:07:13,500 --> 00:07:15,420 It might be. 143 00:07:15,420 --> 00:07:16,860 We can look. 144 00:07:16,860 --> 00:07:19,300 Oh. See? 145 00:07:19,300 --> 00:07:21,580 Did you see that? 146 00:07:21,580 --> 00:07:24,260 What was actually happening there? 147 00:07:24,260 --> 00:07:27,020 I think it may actually have laid an egg inside the aphid. 148 00:07:27,020 --> 00:07:28,420 The wasp? The wasp. 149 00:07:28,420 --> 00:07:30,100 Laid an egg inside the aphid? 150 00:07:30,100 --> 00:07:32,780 Yeah. That's what they do. They search for aphids, 151 00:07:32,780 --> 00:07:35,060 and they lay their eggs inside the aphid. 152 00:07:35,060 --> 00:07:39,860 The egg then hatches, and the larva eats the aphid from the inside out. 153 00:07:39,860 --> 00:07:43,820 So, to be absolutely clear, we just saw something absolutely terrifying? 154 00:07:43,820 --> 00:07:45,700 I think so. From the point of view of an aphid. 155 00:07:45,700 --> 00:07:48,540 Yeah, from the point of view of an aphid. But great if you're the wasp. 156 00:07:48,540 --> 00:07:51,460 That's amazing. That's fantastic. Yeah. Thank you very much, Gia. 157 00:07:51,460 --> 00:07:52,660 Thank you so much. 158 00:07:59,300 --> 00:08:03,380 So, how are these insects picking up on the chemical messages? 159 00:08:03,380 --> 00:08:04,700 If you look at an aphid, 160 00:08:04,700 --> 00:08:08,420 you can see it's got these large antler-like projections 161 00:08:08,420 --> 00:08:10,980 coming out of the top of its head. 162 00:08:10,980 --> 00:08:12,940 Those are its antennae. 163 00:08:12,940 --> 00:08:15,780 They are amazing at picking up pheromones. 164 00:08:15,780 --> 00:08:18,140 But how do they actually work? 165 00:08:18,140 --> 00:08:22,700 If we were to zoom in to the surface of the antenna, 166 00:08:22,700 --> 00:08:27,180 what we find is they're covered in these fine hairs, sensory hairs, 167 00:08:27,180 --> 00:08:29,780 and the hairs are what is actually doing the smelling. 168 00:08:29,780 --> 00:08:32,540 The hairs have got very small holes in them. 169 00:08:32,540 --> 00:08:37,140 And these holes let molecules of air and other chemicals come through. 170 00:08:37,140 --> 00:08:39,340 So, that's moving through all the time, 171 00:08:39,340 --> 00:08:41,220 chemicals are moving in and moving out. 172 00:08:44,180 --> 00:08:45,540 In the centre of the hair... 173 00:08:46,860 --> 00:08:49,100 ..there is a nerve cell. 174 00:08:49,100 --> 00:08:52,380 And what the nerve cell wants to do is detect pheromones. 175 00:08:52,380 --> 00:08:54,260 It's got the receptors for the pheromones. 176 00:08:54,260 --> 00:08:57,500 But if stuff's just moving through the holes, 177 00:08:57,500 --> 00:09:02,180 it doesn't make contact with this nerve cell. 178 00:09:02,180 --> 00:09:04,540 What we need is another factor, 179 00:09:04,540 --> 00:09:07,100 something to actually link it all together and that's called an 180 00:09:07,100 --> 00:09:10,180 odour-binding protein. 181 00:09:10,180 --> 00:09:13,260 And I need a volunteer to help me with this demonstration. 182 00:09:13,260 --> 00:09:16,180 Ideally, I need an odour-binding protein, 183 00:09:16,180 --> 00:09:19,220 but I will also accept a human! 184 00:09:19,220 --> 00:09:21,100 Can I have you? Thank you very much. 185 00:09:21,100 --> 00:09:26,260 You look like a very excellent odour-binding protein! 186 00:09:26,260 --> 00:09:27,420 Thank you. 187 00:09:29,020 --> 00:09:30,940 Now, what's your name? 188 00:09:30,940 --> 00:09:32,860 Shreya. Shreya? 189 00:09:32,860 --> 00:09:35,180 Yes. Now, Shreya, you're no longer Shreya, 190 00:09:35,180 --> 00:09:37,740 you are my odour-binding protein. 191 00:09:37,740 --> 00:09:41,340 And to convey this, you need to wear the odour-binding protein hat. 192 00:09:42,940 --> 00:09:45,780 I'm sorry, it's just the rule for the odour-binding protein club, 193 00:09:45,780 --> 00:09:46,900 come here, hat on. 194 00:09:49,460 --> 00:09:51,140 Transformation, I think you'll agree. 195 00:09:51,140 --> 00:09:53,460 And I need you to take 196 00:09:53,460 --> 00:09:56,660 your odour-binding protein receptor and put that on 197 00:09:56,660 --> 00:09:58,420 your right hand. There you go. 198 00:09:58,420 --> 00:10:01,300 Now, that's what you're going to use to catch molecules. 199 00:10:01,300 --> 00:10:04,660 But you can't catch all the chemicals. 200 00:10:04,660 --> 00:10:06,700 You can only catch things that will work 201 00:10:06,700 --> 00:10:08,860 with the odours you have the receptor for. 202 00:10:08,860 --> 00:10:10,380 So, I'm going to try this. 203 00:10:10,380 --> 00:10:12,020 Will you be able to catch this one? 204 00:10:13,580 --> 00:10:14,620 No. 205 00:10:16,660 --> 00:10:19,540 Oh. Excellent, mad skills, turn it upside down. 206 00:10:19,540 --> 00:10:21,620 There we go. Now, you really can catch that. 207 00:10:21,620 --> 00:10:24,620 So, what I want you to do is, they're going to start moving at 208 00:10:24,620 --> 00:10:27,140 speed through these holes in the hair. 209 00:10:27,140 --> 00:10:30,660 What I want you to do is catch them and, when you've caught one, 210 00:10:30,660 --> 00:10:33,500 bring it over to the nerve cell and make a contact. 211 00:10:33,500 --> 00:10:36,020 You also need to make a contact with your hand as well so you've 212 00:10:36,020 --> 00:10:37,820 completely triggered the nerve cell. 213 00:10:37,820 --> 00:10:40,220 And that's sending the message off to the aphid's brain. 214 00:10:40,220 --> 00:10:43,220 When you've finished, just drop the ball in there, and you're done, OK? 215 00:10:43,220 --> 00:10:44,900 Are you ready? We're going to see 216 00:10:44,900 --> 00:10:46,860 how many of these pheromones you can 217 00:10:46,860 --> 00:10:49,580 catch in the next 20 seconds. 218 00:10:49,580 --> 00:10:50,740 I'm going to count you in. 219 00:10:52,300 --> 00:10:55,780 Three, two, one. 220 00:10:59,420 --> 00:11:01,060 There you go, there you go, other hand. 221 00:11:01,060 --> 00:11:03,940 Good, brilliant. Pop it in there. Fantastic. 222 00:11:09,020 --> 00:11:11,900 You can catch them on the floor. You can catch them on the floor. 223 00:11:11,900 --> 00:11:16,420 AUDIENCE: Five, four, three, two, one. 224 00:11:16,420 --> 00:11:17,540 Well done! 225 00:11:21,180 --> 00:11:23,220 Well done, Shreya. 226 00:11:23,220 --> 00:11:25,500 Well done. 227 00:11:25,500 --> 00:11:28,380 That was very good. You got one but I don't think I'd have caught any. 228 00:11:28,380 --> 00:11:30,300 So, thank you very much. I'll have your... 229 00:11:30,300 --> 00:11:32,180 I'll transform you back into a human. 230 00:11:32,180 --> 00:11:36,660 So, what you did there was you were actually allowing the aphid to know 231 00:11:36,660 --> 00:11:38,660 that there was an aphid alarm pheromone 232 00:11:38,660 --> 00:11:41,660 in the environment by actually causing that nerve cell to fire. 233 00:11:41,660 --> 00:11:43,380 So, your aphid has safely escaped 234 00:11:43,380 --> 00:11:46,700 and you can all run out of the room now, if you wish to! There we go. 235 00:11:46,700 --> 00:11:48,820 Thank you very much, Shreya, thank you. 236 00:11:55,740 --> 00:11:58,180 You can think of pheromones as being a bit like hormones, 237 00:11:58,180 --> 00:11:59,620 they're things that affect... 238 00:11:59,620 --> 00:12:02,300 Chemicals that affect your body and your behaviour. 239 00:12:02,300 --> 00:12:03,500 But unlike hormones, 240 00:12:03,500 --> 00:12:06,780 it's a signal that's coming from outside of the body. 241 00:12:06,780 --> 00:12:11,460 Insects live in this world where pheromones are extremely important. 242 00:12:11,460 --> 00:12:15,020 But what about animals closer to us in the evolutionary tree? 243 00:12:15,020 --> 00:12:17,460 Do they use pheromones as well? 244 00:12:17,460 --> 00:12:20,660 Well, here is an animal that's not necessarily 245 00:12:20,660 --> 00:12:23,660 absolutely everybody's favourite animal. 246 00:12:23,660 --> 00:12:24,820 Snakes. 247 00:12:30,620 --> 00:12:35,700 Now, Phil, I see that you've got two snakes. 248 00:12:35,700 --> 00:12:38,580 I've got one. I need some volunteers. 249 00:12:38,580 --> 00:12:40,660 I need a volunteer who's absolutely 250 00:12:40,660 --> 00:12:42,660 not going to freak out when and if 251 00:12:42,660 --> 00:12:44,860 they meet a snake. OK. 252 00:12:44,860 --> 00:12:47,060 Can I have... 253 00:12:47,060 --> 00:12:49,940 You there in the pink sweater? You there, yes. 254 00:12:49,940 --> 00:12:53,460 And can I have you there in the Christmas sweater with the glasses? 255 00:12:53,460 --> 00:12:54,860 Yeah, fantastic. 256 00:12:57,740 --> 00:13:01,180 I don't see why I should be the only person freaking out because they've 257 00:13:01,180 --> 00:13:02,900 got a snake going down their blouse. 258 00:13:02,900 --> 00:13:05,100 Right, OK. So, what's your name? 259 00:13:05,100 --> 00:13:06,620 Have your hand up like that... 260 00:13:06,620 --> 00:13:09,420 Obiay. Obiay? Hello, Obiay. And so, what's your name? 261 00:13:09,420 --> 00:13:12,540 Gia. Gia. Now, Gia. Well done. Oh, thank you. 262 00:13:12,540 --> 00:13:16,660 Can you see these snakes are sticking their tongues out a lot? 263 00:13:16,660 --> 00:13:19,820 That's because this is an unfamiliar environment for these snakes and 264 00:13:19,820 --> 00:13:22,940 they're exploring it, they're exploring it with their tongues. 265 00:13:22,940 --> 00:13:27,340 The really interesting part about these tongues 266 00:13:27,340 --> 00:13:30,660 is that they themselves don't have any receptors on them. 267 00:13:30,660 --> 00:13:32,940 They haven't got taste buds on, like our tongues. 268 00:13:32,940 --> 00:13:34,500 What the snakes are doing, 269 00:13:34,500 --> 00:13:39,060 they're capturing molecules from the air and they're bringing them into 270 00:13:39,060 --> 00:13:42,020 the snakes' mouths. Now, this is different from the snake's nose. 271 00:13:42,020 --> 00:13:45,420 You can see they've got nostrils up at the top of their face. 272 00:13:45,420 --> 00:13:47,820 The organ that they've got inside their mouths 273 00:13:47,820 --> 00:13:50,140 is called a vomeronasal organ. 274 00:13:50,140 --> 00:13:51,580 And it actually lives... 275 00:13:56,020 --> 00:13:59,260 ..on the roof of the snake's mouth. 276 00:13:59,260 --> 00:14:02,020 So, they bring the tongue in, 277 00:14:02,020 --> 00:14:07,260 and they dip the two tips of the tongue into each side, 278 00:14:07,260 --> 00:14:10,060 there's actually two little holes for the vomeronasal organ, 279 00:14:10,060 --> 00:14:15,300 and that's making direct contact with pheromones into nerve cells. 280 00:14:15,300 --> 00:14:18,780 So, that information can pass straight up into the snake's brain. 281 00:14:20,460 --> 00:14:25,020 There's a fork in the snake's tongue and that means they can tell if the 282 00:14:25,020 --> 00:14:27,340 smells have come from the left or the right. 283 00:14:27,340 --> 00:14:29,300 So, it's able to move in the direction 284 00:14:29,300 --> 00:14:30,940 that the pheromone has come from. 285 00:14:33,340 --> 00:14:34,780 What's all this for? 286 00:14:34,780 --> 00:14:38,380 Well, mostly, for snakes, it's about finding a mate. 287 00:14:38,380 --> 00:14:42,140 Snakes are shy creatures that hide and ambush their prey. 288 00:14:42,140 --> 00:14:45,860 And this system means that the male snakes can detect pheromone messages 289 00:14:45,860 --> 00:14:49,540 being given out by a receptive female snake from a great distance. 290 00:14:49,540 --> 00:14:52,780 Good news for any lady snakes in here this evening. 291 00:14:52,780 --> 00:14:57,780 So, I'm going to say bye-bye to our highly friendly snakes. 292 00:14:57,780 --> 00:14:59,380 That's fine, you guys, well done. 293 00:15:01,180 --> 00:15:03,260 Well done. Obiay, fantastic. 294 00:15:03,260 --> 00:15:04,780 Gia, very brave. 295 00:15:04,780 --> 00:15:06,860 Well done. Fantastic, thank you. 296 00:15:12,140 --> 00:15:14,740 They did brilliantly. 297 00:15:14,740 --> 00:15:17,060 I was freaking out, I don't know if you could tell that. 298 00:15:17,060 --> 00:15:22,060 So, what other animals also have a vomeronasal organ? 299 00:15:22,060 --> 00:15:24,180 Well, it turns out quite a lot of them do. 300 00:15:24,180 --> 00:15:27,540 A lot of other mammals have got vomeronasal organs that they use for 301 00:15:27,540 --> 00:15:28,900 smelling pheromones. 302 00:15:28,900 --> 00:15:30,900 So, if you've ever looked at dogs 303 00:15:30,900 --> 00:15:33,500 smelling other dogs' bottoms and thought, 304 00:15:33,500 --> 00:15:35,540 "I fail to see the appeal of that," 305 00:15:35,540 --> 00:15:38,940 well, actually, it's because the dogs are smelling pheromones. 306 00:15:38,940 --> 00:15:40,860 And they are very short-lived pheromones, 307 00:15:40,860 --> 00:15:42,900 so they can't pass off into the air, 308 00:15:42,900 --> 00:15:44,580 so the dog's really got to put its nose 309 00:15:44,580 --> 00:15:46,900 into its friend's bottom to get to those pheromones. 310 00:15:46,900 --> 00:15:49,140 Probably too much information there! 311 00:15:49,140 --> 00:15:50,980 When cats pull a funny face, 312 00:15:50,980 --> 00:15:53,580 if a cat's ever got on your lap and gone... 313 00:15:55,060 --> 00:15:58,100 ..that's the cat trying to smell your pheromones. 314 00:15:58,100 --> 00:15:59,900 Now, I love cats. 315 00:15:59,900 --> 00:16:03,380 I don't know if I absolutely want them smelling what they might think 316 00:16:03,380 --> 00:16:05,460 might be my pheromones, but it's what they do. 317 00:16:05,460 --> 00:16:07,540 It's because it matters so much to mammals. 318 00:16:07,540 --> 00:16:09,940 They live in a world of smell. 319 00:16:09,940 --> 00:16:13,140 Do humans - we're mammals - do we have a vomeronasal organ? 320 00:16:13,140 --> 00:16:15,220 Can we use smell to send messages? 321 00:16:17,180 --> 00:16:20,900 Well, if we look at the roof of a human mouth... 322 00:16:22,300 --> 00:16:27,580 ..what you find is no evidence of a vomeronasal organ. 323 00:16:27,580 --> 00:16:30,780 We don't seem to have the receptors 324 00:16:30,780 --> 00:16:34,500 to actually pick up pheromone information. 325 00:16:35,780 --> 00:16:38,580 Now, we like smells, don't we? 326 00:16:38,580 --> 00:16:40,140 We do. We pay attention to smells, 327 00:16:40,140 --> 00:16:41,660 you cared about the smells we sent 328 00:16:41,660 --> 00:16:44,340 around the lecture theatre earlier in the evening, 329 00:16:44,340 --> 00:16:48,580 but they are less important to us than they are to other animals. 330 00:16:48,580 --> 00:16:51,060 For other mammals, smell dominates. 331 00:16:51,060 --> 00:16:53,220 It can be the most important sense. 332 00:16:54,780 --> 00:16:59,540 Why might we have lost some of our ancestors' smelling abilities, 333 00:16:59,540 --> 00:17:04,220 and along with it maybe our ability to use pheromones? 334 00:17:04,220 --> 00:17:07,980 Well, to think about that, we need to think about how primates evolved. 335 00:17:10,740 --> 00:17:14,460 These are three primate skulls. 336 00:17:14,460 --> 00:17:18,580 We look here, this is an ancient primate, this is a lemur. 337 00:17:18,580 --> 00:17:22,580 That's an ancestral ape, so that's one of the ancestors of apes. 338 00:17:22,580 --> 00:17:24,620 And this is a modern human. 339 00:17:24,620 --> 00:17:27,140 And one of the things you can notice 340 00:17:27,140 --> 00:17:29,300 as you get to humans is that faces... 341 00:17:31,620 --> 00:17:33,620 ..start to get much flatter. 342 00:17:33,620 --> 00:17:36,180 We just have smaller noses. 343 00:17:36,180 --> 00:17:40,420 We've got less space for there to be smell information detected. 344 00:17:40,420 --> 00:17:44,140 Smell is just downplayed right from the start in humans. 345 00:17:44,140 --> 00:17:47,140 And you can also see that there have been other changes. 346 00:17:47,140 --> 00:17:51,260 So, for example, our faces are longer, our mouths are taller, 347 00:17:51,260 --> 00:17:53,060 there's more space inside our mouths, 348 00:17:53,060 --> 00:17:55,140 and we have much bigger eyes. 349 00:17:55,140 --> 00:17:58,540 And, in fact, if you look in the brain, you see a similar pattern. 350 00:17:58,540 --> 00:18:00,900 A lot of other mammals have got huge amounts 351 00:18:00,900 --> 00:18:03,580 of their brain devoted to dealing with smell. 352 00:18:03,580 --> 00:18:06,900 In humans, those smell areas are very small. 353 00:18:06,900 --> 00:18:08,340 And, in contrast, in humans, 354 00:18:08,340 --> 00:18:10,820 the brain areas associated with processing 355 00:18:10,820 --> 00:18:12,340 sound and vision are much larger. 356 00:18:12,340 --> 00:18:16,020 So, what we've done is we've really 357 00:18:16,020 --> 00:18:19,620 traded off the space in our faces and in 358 00:18:19,620 --> 00:18:23,140 our skulls for dealing with smell information, 359 00:18:23,140 --> 00:18:25,900 and we've replaced it with vision and hearing. 360 00:18:25,900 --> 00:18:27,700 And that's probably because... 361 00:18:28,900 --> 00:18:32,380 ..vision and hearing have great advantages for humans, 362 00:18:32,380 --> 00:18:34,300 not least for communication. 363 00:18:35,740 --> 00:18:40,260 Now, no disrespect to smell, smell works really well for communication. 364 00:18:40,260 --> 00:18:42,660 At a distance, for example, smell can be great. 365 00:18:42,660 --> 00:18:44,460 You saw that with the snakes. 366 00:18:44,460 --> 00:18:47,700 But smells will only move at the speed of the air around them, 367 00:18:47,700 --> 00:18:49,180 and they can linger a long while. 368 00:18:49,180 --> 00:18:50,940 I am sure the aphids would prefer 369 00:18:50,940 --> 00:18:53,060 that the wasps couldn't pick up on their 370 00:18:53,060 --> 00:18:55,740 distant alarm pheromone messages. 371 00:18:55,740 --> 00:18:59,500 If, however, you want to send faster, more complicated messages, 372 00:18:59,500 --> 00:19:02,540 you need a speedier system. 373 00:19:02,540 --> 00:19:05,940 So, let's look at a more flexible way to communicate. 374 00:19:08,020 --> 00:19:08,980 Let there be light. 375 00:19:11,500 --> 00:19:13,980 Many animals produce their own light. 376 00:19:13,980 --> 00:19:15,660 This helix of light is made in a 377 00:19:15,660 --> 00:19:17,820 very similar way by mixing together two chemicals. 378 00:19:17,820 --> 00:19:20,180 In the natural world, 379 00:19:20,180 --> 00:19:22,140 a chemical called luciferin is 380 00:19:22,140 --> 00:19:24,500 mixed with an enzyme called luciferase. 381 00:19:24,500 --> 00:19:27,740 The reaction causes light to be given off. 382 00:19:27,740 --> 00:19:30,580 AUDIENCE: Ooh! 383 00:19:30,580 --> 00:19:33,660 Making light via this kind of chemical reaction 384 00:19:33,660 --> 00:19:35,220 is actually one of the 385 00:19:35,220 --> 00:19:38,940 commonest methods of communication on Earth. 386 00:19:38,940 --> 00:19:43,820 It's called bioluminescence, and deep sea fish are famous for it. 387 00:19:43,820 --> 00:19:47,180 To explain more, please welcome from the Natural History Museum, 388 00:19:47,180 --> 00:19:49,500 curator of fish, James Maclaine! 389 00:19:55,100 --> 00:19:57,500 Hello, James. Nice to meet you. 390 00:19:57,500 --> 00:19:59,540 Now, if you could just tell me 391 00:19:59,540 --> 00:20:01,740 what you've brought along for us today? 392 00:20:01,740 --> 00:20:05,900 I've brought along a tiny fraction of our huge deep sea fish collection 393 00:20:05,900 --> 00:20:07,980 that we have at the Natural History Museum. 394 00:20:07,980 --> 00:20:11,620 So, in our first jar we have two specimens of a thing 395 00:20:11,620 --> 00:20:14,220 called a Threadthin dragonfish. 396 00:20:14,220 --> 00:20:15,860 So it has a light organ 397 00:20:15,860 --> 00:20:18,740 on a little barb underneath its chin, 398 00:20:18,740 --> 00:20:21,660 and it uses that to attract its prey towards its mouth. 399 00:20:21,660 --> 00:20:24,620 And then all along its tummy it has rows and rows 400 00:20:24,620 --> 00:20:26,060 of little lights there. 401 00:20:26,060 --> 00:20:28,540 And what that's for is actually for camouflaging itself, 402 00:20:28,540 --> 00:20:31,500 so during the day when there is still a very faint amount of light 403 00:20:31,500 --> 00:20:34,740 above, it makes its underside glow very faint blue, 404 00:20:34,740 --> 00:20:36,940 so that if you look up, you can't see it. 405 00:20:36,940 --> 00:20:39,060 And then, my favourite thing about them, 406 00:20:39,060 --> 00:20:41,340 is they have a light organ behind their eye, 407 00:20:41,340 --> 00:20:43,100 and in the male it's much, 408 00:20:43,100 --> 00:20:44,700 much bigger than in the female. 409 00:20:44,700 --> 00:20:46,300 So what we think is, it's like 410 00:20:46,300 --> 00:20:48,300 a sort of deep sea version of a peacock's tail. 411 00:20:48,300 --> 00:20:50,780 It's a display thing, so it gets her attention. 412 00:20:50,780 --> 00:20:52,860 Fantastic. What about these guys? 413 00:20:52,860 --> 00:20:54,220 They are called Lanternfish, 414 00:20:54,220 --> 00:20:57,260 and they have a very distinctive pattern of lights along their sides. 415 00:20:57,260 --> 00:20:58,900 It's a bit like a constellation of stars. 416 00:20:58,900 --> 00:21:00,580 It's very distinctive. And it's so 417 00:21:00,580 --> 00:21:02,980 distinctive that's what they use to recognise each other. 418 00:21:02,980 --> 00:21:04,700 They live in big shoals, 419 00:21:04,700 --> 00:21:06,340 so that's how they work out they are 420 00:21:06,340 --> 00:21:09,740 in a shoal of the same Lanternfish as themselves. Amazing. 421 00:21:09,740 --> 00:21:12,140 What about this guy? This one is quite interesting. 422 00:21:12,140 --> 00:21:14,500 This is a stoplight loosejaw. 423 00:21:14,500 --> 00:21:17,180 And everything I've mentioned so far is using blue light, 424 00:21:17,180 --> 00:21:19,460 but this uses blue lights and red lights. 425 00:21:19,460 --> 00:21:20,780 Why do they use blue lights? 426 00:21:20,780 --> 00:21:22,460 Blue light travels the furthest. 427 00:21:22,460 --> 00:21:24,820 It's the frequency of light that penetrates the furthest, 428 00:21:24,820 --> 00:21:27,540 so if you want to get your signal out there, blue light is 429 00:21:27,540 --> 00:21:29,620 the best light colour to use. 430 00:21:29,620 --> 00:21:31,420 OK. But this 431 00:21:31,420 --> 00:21:32,700 can also create red light. 432 00:21:32,700 --> 00:21:34,500 It has, like, a light organ just 433 00:21:34,500 --> 00:21:37,820 underneath its eye, but points forward, like a torch beam. 434 00:21:37,820 --> 00:21:40,540 It can hunt out little animals using its red light, 435 00:21:40,540 --> 00:21:42,220 and nothing else can see it, because 436 00:21:42,220 --> 00:21:44,020 everything is tuned to the blue light. 437 00:21:44,020 --> 00:21:45,500 And, finally, what do we have here? 438 00:21:45,500 --> 00:21:47,100 I think this is my favourite. 439 00:21:47,100 --> 00:21:49,460 I like it so much, I'm going to get it out for you. 440 00:21:49,460 --> 00:21:52,180 There is actually two fish in here. This is a deep sea anglerfish. 441 00:21:52,180 --> 00:21:54,180 The males and the females are very different. 442 00:21:54,180 --> 00:21:56,860 The males have become very, very small. 443 00:21:56,860 --> 00:22:01,540 They are now so small and pathetic that they can't actually survive by 444 00:22:01,540 --> 00:22:04,380 themselves, they have to attach themselves to the female, 445 00:22:04,380 --> 00:22:06,860 and feed off her, like a little vampire. 446 00:22:06,860 --> 00:22:09,620 So, if I hold this very still... 447 00:22:09,620 --> 00:22:14,340 That little, sort of, tadpole thing there, is the male. 448 00:22:14,340 --> 00:22:17,540 And he's actually like a little parasite. 449 00:22:17,540 --> 00:22:19,620 Very judgmental terms here, James. 450 00:22:19,620 --> 00:22:21,980 He's been a vampire, a parasite, and pathetic. 451 00:22:21,980 --> 00:22:24,340 He is a little bit! She's using light, 452 00:22:24,340 --> 00:22:26,580 so she has, like the dragonfish, 453 00:22:26,580 --> 00:22:28,540 she's using light for catching her food. 454 00:22:28,540 --> 00:22:31,780 So that little matchstick-like thing there would be going, 455 00:22:31,780 --> 00:22:34,780 that little blue dot. That's what she uses to lure her prey in. 456 00:22:34,780 --> 00:22:37,020 And this lovely beard that she has, 457 00:22:37,020 --> 00:22:39,300 these have light organs down there, too. 458 00:22:39,300 --> 00:22:40,900 We're not sure what they are used for. 459 00:22:40,900 --> 00:22:43,140 They may even be, sort of, like, landing lights, 460 00:22:43,140 --> 00:22:45,180 to guide the male in. We just don't know. 461 00:22:45,180 --> 00:22:48,580 Thank you very, very much. There's one more thing I needed to ask. 462 00:22:48,580 --> 00:22:51,700 They are making light, how are they actually doing it? 463 00:22:51,700 --> 00:22:55,180 Well, these three are doing it in a very, sort of, chemical manner. 464 00:22:55,180 --> 00:22:56,660 They have two chemicals, I think 465 00:22:56,660 --> 00:22:59,260 we've mentioned them already, luciferin and luciferase. 466 00:22:59,260 --> 00:23:01,820 They combine the two, and that turns the light on, basically. 467 00:23:01,820 --> 00:23:03,540 Like glow sticks. Exactly, yes. 468 00:23:03,540 --> 00:23:06,100 But the angler fish is doing it in a much more clever way. 469 00:23:06,100 --> 00:23:08,620 It's actually getting someone else to make the light for it. 470 00:23:08,620 --> 00:23:12,100 She acquires, as she grows, little luminescent bacteria, 471 00:23:12,100 --> 00:23:13,300 and she keeps them, 472 00:23:13,300 --> 00:23:14,980 cultures them, and grows them, 473 00:23:14,980 --> 00:23:17,020 and that's what she uses to make her lights. 474 00:23:17,020 --> 00:23:19,780 Amazing. Thank you very much, James Maclaine, thank you. 475 00:23:19,780 --> 00:23:21,060 I won't shake your hand! 476 00:23:27,660 --> 00:23:30,700 Now, fish are not the only animals that communicate with light. 477 00:23:30,700 --> 00:23:32,980 It's a technique used by jellyfish and squid, 478 00:23:32,980 --> 00:23:36,540 but also above the water by insects like fireflies. 479 00:23:37,780 --> 00:23:41,740 Now, this firefly is using light to attract females. 480 00:23:41,740 --> 00:23:44,900 What is quite interesting about some species of fireflies 481 00:23:44,900 --> 00:23:46,620 is that, in groups, 482 00:23:46,620 --> 00:23:50,740 they start to synchronise their flashes somewhat, 483 00:23:50,740 --> 00:23:52,700 with each other. 484 00:23:52,700 --> 00:23:54,420 Why would they do this? 485 00:23:54,420 --> 00:23:58,780 Why would there be value in flashing your light at the same time as the 486 00:23:58,780 --> 00:24:03,340 other males that you're competing with to attract females? 487 00:24:03,340 --> 00:24:06,060 Well, we're going to have a look at a demonstration. 488 00:24:06,060 --> 00:24:08,140 You're all wearing LED wrist bands. 489 00:24:08,140 --> 00:24:11,300 Can you hold them up next to your head? Fantastic. 490 00:24:11,300 --> 00:24:13,780 And they are going to get turned on. 491 00:24:15,140 --> 00:24:17,820 What we're doing here... 492 00:24:17,820 --> 00:24:20,020 On this screen we've got a camera set up 493 00:24:20,020 --> 00:24:22,180 that's picking up those flashes. 494 00:24:22,180 --> 00:24:24,580 So you can see is something going on in the auditorium 495 00:24:24,580 --> 00:24:26,500 with these random flashes. 496 00:24:28,460 --> 00:24:32,220 If we start to make your wristbands 497 00:24:32,220 --> 00:24:35,060 start to flash more in synchrony with each other, 498 00:24:35,060 --> 00:24:38,500 you start to see something a bit more 499 00:24:38,500 --> 00:24:41,020 coherent appearing on the screen. 500 00:24:41,020 --> 00:24:43,420 It's more salient. It's more noticeable. 501 00:24:44,900 --> 00:24:48,260 When you synchronise your flashes... 502 00:24:49,540 --> 00:24:51,940 ..with the other fireflies around you, 503 00:24:51,940 --> 00:24:54,740 what you get is a signal which is much stronger. 504 00:24:54,740 --> 00:24:58,420 And that, potentially, might be more noticeable by the female. 505 00:24:58,420 --> 00:25:00,100 You've still got to compete with those 506 00:25:00,100 --> 00:25:02,300 other males once you've attracted the females, 507 00:25:02,300 --> 00:25:04,260 but maybe you'd be more likely to attract 508 00:25:04,260 --> 00:25:07,140 more females in the first place, if you can be seen. 509 00:25:07,140 --> 00:25:11,620 It's also the case that different species can use different kinds of 510 00:25:11,620 --> 00:25:15,940 flashing sequences to signal what species they are. 511 00:25:15,940 --> 00:25:18,660 Maybe that's also helping the females know 512 00:25:18,660 --> 00:25:20,340 who they are looking for. 513 00:25:20,340 --> 00:25:22,380 Interestingly, in a very similar way, 514 00:25:22,380 --> 00:25:27,220 different UK lighthouses flash lights with different patterns, 515 00:25:27,220 --> 00:25:31,420 so this tells ship captains not only that there is a lighthouse there, 516 00:25:31,420 --> 00:25:33,700 but also which lighthouse it is. 517 00:25:33,700 --> 00:25:34,980 And, interestingly, 518 00:25:34,980 --> 00:25:37,500 that's a technique that was brought to the UK by 519 00:25:37,500 --> 00:25:39,660 Michael Faraday, the man, and the scientist, 520 00:25:39,660 --> 00:25:42,420 who started these lectures here at the Royal Institution. 521 00:25:43,900 --> 00:25:47,780 So we've seen animals that make their own light to communicate, 522 00:25:47,780 --> 00:25:51,980 but daytime land dwellers like us don't need to do that, 523 00:25:51,980 --> 00:25:54,220 because we've got a great big light in the sky. 524 00:25:54,220 --> 00:25:55,460 We've got the sun. 525 00:25:55,460 --> 00:25:57,300 And the sun is making light. 526 00:25:57,300 --> 00:25:58,820 Out in that daylight, 527 00:25:58,820 --> 00:26:00,140 we can be seen. 528 00:26:00,140 --> 00:26:02,380 We can take advantage of the fact that we are visible. 529 00:26:03,580 --> 00:26:05,220 And we can use this to communicate 530 00:26:05,220 --> 00:26:07,060 our state of mind, and our wellbeing. 531 00:26:07,060 --> 00:26:08,900 We can change our body's position, 532 00:26:08,900 --> 00:26:10,660 and how it moves, to convey that. 533 00:26:10,660 --> 00:26:12,340 This is called body language. 534 00:26:12,340 --> 00:26:15,580 And we are not the only animals that use it. 535 00:26:15,580 --> 00:26:19,260 Please welcome Betty and Lola, and their owners, Dani and Martin. 536 00:26:23,180 --> 00:26:27,220 Hello. Hello. 537 00:26:27,220 --> 00:26:29,180 Aren't you lovely? Aren't you lovely? 538 00:26:29,180 --> 00:26:30,660 Now, can I have a volunteer who 539 00:26:30,660 --> 00:26:32,460 might like to come and say hello to a dog? 540 00:26:32,460 --> 00:26:34,300 That's a popular one, that is. 541 00:26:34,300 --> 00:26:36,380 It's going to be very difficult to choose. 542 00:26:36,380 --> 00:26:39,100 I think I'm going to have to ask, can I have you, 543 00:26:39,100 --> 00:26:41,580 on the end? With the white T-shirt, the grey T-shirt. 544 00:26:41,580 --> 00:26:43,460 No, that's it, you're looking behind you. 545 00:26:43,460 --> 00:26:45,700 Thank you very much. Thank you. 546 00:26:45,700 --> 00:26:51,100 Now, very, very gently come and say hello to these good girls. 547 00:26:51,100 --> 00:26:54,380 Hello. There we go. 548 00:26:54,380 --> 00:26:58,180 Now, what does it mean when Betty wags her tail like that? 549 00:27:00,100 --> 00:27:02,300 AUDIENCE MEMBER: It means that she's happy. 550 00:27:02,300 --> 00:27:04,740 She's happy, and having a good time, yes, exactly. 551 00:27:04,740 --> 00:27:07,740 We all know this, don't we? A dog wags its tail when it's happy. 552 00:27:07,740 --> 00:27:11,980 Well, the situation turns out to be a lot more nuanced than that. 553 00:27:13,060 --> 00:27:15,340 Scientists from Genoa University 554 00:27:15,340 --> 00:27:17,620 have recently suggested that dogs 555 00:27:17,620 --> 00:27:20,100 will wag their tails slightly differently, 556 00:27:20,100 --> 00:27:21,860 depending on their mood. 557 00:27:21,860 --> 00:27:24,060 What they found is the dog with the 558 00:27:24,060 --> 00:27:26,460 more left-leaning wag is a rather more 559 00:27:26,460 --> 00:27:28,940 calm, relaxed, happy dog. 560 00:27:28,940 --> 00:27:31,420 Whereas a more right-leaning wag 561 00:27:31,420 --> 00:27:34,020 means the dog's a little bit more anxious. 562 00:27:34,020 --> 00:27:35,660 You can see this on the clip here. 563 00:27:35,660 --> 00:27:37,460 That's a more rightwards wag, 564 00:27:37,460 --> 00:27:39,140 slightly more anxious dog. 565 00:27:39,140 --> 00:27:41,180 And here we've got a leftwards wag. 566 00:27:41,180 --> 00:27:44,060 OK. The really interesting part was, 567 00:27:44,060 --> 00:27:48,660 they would show these videos to other dogs. 568 00:27:48,660 --> 00:27:50,980 And the dogs watching these videos 569 00:27:50,980 --> 00:27:54,540 would start to show slightly different emotional responses. 570 00:27:54,540 --> 00:27:57,700 The dogs who are watching the more rightwards leaning wag 571 00:27:57,700 --> 00:27:59,940 showed signs of becoming more anxious. 572 00:27:59,940 --> 00:28:02,540 And the dogs who watched the leftwards leaning wag 573 00:28:02,540 --> 00:28:04,700 became more relaxed. 574 00:28:04,700 --> 00:28:08,300 So dogs really do seem to be sending quite a complex, 575 00:28:08,300 --> 00:28:12,940 quite a nuanced piece of information in addition to just, "I'm happy." 576 00:28:12,940 --> 00:28:14,940 Thank you very much for helping us with the dogs. 577 00:28:14,940 --> 00:28:17,060 Thank you very, very much, Lola, thank you, Betty. 578 00:28:17,060 --> 00:28:19,380 Thank you, Dani. Thank you, Martin. Thank you. 579 00:28:27,140 --> 00:28:31,900 So dogs seem to be really good at reading each other's body language. 580 00:28:31,900 --> 00:28:34,740 But can dogs pick up on body language messages 581 00:28:34,740 --> 00:28:36,220 from another animal? 582 00:28:36,220 --> 00:28:38,820 Like us? Many people will have noticed 583 00:28:38,820 --> 00:28:41,260 their dogs behaving differently, 584 00:28:41,260 --> 00:28:43,940 depending on whether they are in a good or bad mood. 585 00:28:43,940 --> 00:28:46,780 But do those dogs really know what we're thinking? 586 00:28:46,780 --> 00:28:48,380 At the University of Lincoln, 587 00:28:48,380 --> 00:28:50,540 Professor Daniel Mills is testing whether or not 588 00:28:50,540 --> 00:28:54,860 dogs can use our facial expressions to help understand our emotions. 589 00:28:54,860 --> 00:28:58,020 Hiya. So these are some of the team that we've been working with. 590 00:28:58,020 --> 00:28:59,340 These are just pet dogs, 591 00:28:59,340 --> 00:29:02,380 they've not been specially trained for anything to do with the study. 592 00:29:02,380 --> 00:29:04,340 We just want to see how they respond to 593 00:29:04,340 --> 00:29:06,460 what's going on emotionally, around them. 594 00:29:06,460 --> 00:29:07,620 So we want them to have 595 00:29:07,620 --> 00:29:10,380 the full repertoire of emotional reactions, 596 00:29:10,380 --> 00:29:13,140 lunging at cameras, and everything. OK? 597 00:29:17,940 --> 00:29:22,260 What we have is, we have a set-up here, you can see these two screens. 598 00:29:22,260 --> 00:29:25,580 And one of them shows an angry face, one of them shows a happy face. 599 00:29:25,580 --> 00:29:29,260 The dog sits down here, and then we'll play them a sound, 600 00:29:29,260 --> 00:29:32,260 and that will either be an angry or a happy sound. 601 00:29:32,260 --> 00:29:35,500 The language is Portuguese, and Ralph here doesn't know Portuguese. 602 00:29:35,500 --> 00:29:37,180 If they can understand emotion, 603 00:29:37,180 --> 00:29:38,860 then the only thing linking the 604 00:29:38,860 --> 00:29:41,860 sounds and the pictures is their emotional content. 605 00:29:41,860 --> 00:29:43,860 PORTUGUESE SPOKEN WITH HAPPY INTONATION 606 00:29:43,860 --> 00:29:46,460 PORTUGUESE SPOKEN WITH ANGRY INTONATION 607 00:29:46,460 --> 00:29:49,220 What we find is that, actually, 608 00:29:49,220 --> 00:29:52,780 the dogs spend more time looking at the picture that matches the sound. 609 00:29:52,780 --> 00:29:54,180 HAPPY PORTUGUESE 610 00:29:54,180 --> 00:29:56,460 HAPPY PORTUGUESE REPEATED 611 00:29:56,460 --> 00:29:58,580 The only way you can actually do that is 612 00:29:58,580 --> 00:30:01,660 if you can extract the emotional information from both. 613 00:30:01,660 --> 00:30:03,540 ANGRY PORTUGUESE 614 00:30:03,540 --> 00:30:05,660 ANGRY PORTUGUESE REPEATED 615 00:30:05,660 --> 00:30:06,980 Sure enough, the dogs do this 616 00:30:06,980 --> 00:30:09,180 integration of the different emotional signals. 617 00:30:09,180 --> 00:30:11,860 They clearly have this much higher understanding of emotion than 618 00:30:11,860 --> 00:30:13,380 we've previously actually thought. 619 00:30:13,380 --> 00:30:16,180 ANGRY PORTUGUESE 620 00:30:16,180 --> 00:30:19,340 ANGRY PORTUGUESE REPEATED 621 00:30:26,300 --> 00:30:28,540 So pet dogs really do seem to be 622 00:30:28,540 --> 00:30:31,260 able to detect when there's emotional 623 00:30:31,260 --> 00:30:34,580 information from the face and from the voice, they are coherent, 624 00:30:34,580 --> 00:30:36,220 they are consistent with one another. 625 00:30:36,220 --> 00:30:39,660 So they are definitely using our facial information to work out what 626 00:30:39,660 --> 00:30:41,700 emotion we're expressing. 627 00:30:41,700 --> 00:30:44,140 But how good are we humans at 628 00:30:44,140 --> 00:30:47,460 picking up silent visual communication? 629 00:30:50,420 --> 00:30:52,900 What do you think we are looking at here, 630 00:30:52,900 --> 00:30:55,100 if our pile of ping-pong balls starts to move? 631 00:31:04,220 --> 00:31:06,900 Do you think we are looking at humans? AUDIENCE: Yes. 632 00:31:06,900 --> 00:31:09,980 Yeah, OK. How many humans? 633 00:31:09,980 --> 00:31:12,380 Two. Do you think it's two men, two women? 634 00:31:12,380 --> 00:31:15,980 Two men. A man and a woman? 635 00:31:15,980 --> 00:31:18,300 It's a man and a woman, I think. 636 00:31:18,300 --> 00:31:20,900 OK. Shall we try some emotions? Give us an emotion. 637 00:31:24,580 --> 00:31:26,140 Scared. Scared. Perfect. 638 00:31:26,140 --> 00:31:29,460 OK, try another one. Angry. 639 00:31:29,460 --> 00:31:30,660 Fantastic. 640 00:31:30,660 --> 00:31:31,660 And one last one. 641 00:31:32,940 --> 00:31:34,300 Happy. 642 00:31:34,300 --> 00:31:35,380 Yes, fantastic. 643 00:31:36,460 --> 00:31:37,820 Laughter, yes. 644 00:31:40,660 --> 00:31:41,740 Fantastic. 645 00:31:45,740 --> 00:31:47,620 Now, this is Blair and Alexis, and in fact, 646 00:31:47,620 --> 00:31:49,300 you were getting all that information 647 00:31:49,300 --> 00:31:51,460 from who they were and how they were moving 648 00:31:51,460 --> 00:31:53,420 just from 14 points which 649 00:31:53,420 --> 00:31:56,220 are marked on their joints for each of them. 650 00:31:56,220 --> 00:31:58,300 So this is showing you how good you are 651 00:31:58,300 --> 00:32:00,940 at pulling out information about how humans move, 652 00:32:00,940 --> 00:32:03,620 because even with this really reduced amount of information, 653 00:32:03,620 --> 00:32:05,820 you could tell a lot about who they were, 654 00:32:05,820 --> 00:32:07,380 what emotions they were feeling. 655 00:32:07,380 --> 00:32:09,220 Thank you, Blair, thank you, Alexis. 656 00:32:14,900 --> 00:32:18,980 Now, our bodies give away a huge amount about our inner feelings, 657 00:32:18,980 --> 00:32:23,460 but our faces can be even more expressive. 658 00:32:23,460 --> 00:32:25,940 I've got a very scary video 659 00:32:25,940 --> 00:32:28,380 that I want you to watch. 660 00:32:28,380 --> 00:32:31,300 Please bear in mind, it is very scary, 661 00:32:31,300 --> 00:32:34,020 but I need you to keep looking, OK? 662 00:32:34,020 --> 00:32:38,140 I want you to watch this video and count how many birds you can see. 663 00:32:38,140 --> 00:32:39,180 I will be testing you. 664 00:32:42,580 --> 00:32:45,700 CALM JINGLY MUSIC 665 00:32:59,380 --> 00:33:01,260 SCREAMING 666 00:33:06,780 --> 00:33:10,180 I've got to tell you, that was a trick. There were no birds. 667 00:33:10,180 --> 00:33:12,020 OK, don't worry if you hadn't seen any birds. 668 00:33:12,020 --> 00:33:14,980 I just wanted you to get scared by the video. 669 00:33:14,980 --> 00:33:18,300 Let's have a look at what we filmed, from you, in the audience, 670 00:33:18,300 --> 00:33:19,940 and see if we've got any good reactions. 671 00:33:24,740 --> 00:33:26,060 Oh, fantastic. 672 00:33:26,060 --> 00:33:28,460 Now, I think that was you. 673 00:33:28,460 --> 00:33:30,940 Did you feel scared? You moved right back, didn't you? 674 00:33:32,420 --> 00:33:35,380 One of the things that's quite interesting, quite striking, 675 00:33:35,380 --> 00:33:38,940 about these sorts of fearful facial emotions, 676 00:33:38,940 --> 00:33:41,060 is that everybody's slightly different. 677 00:33:41,060 --> 00:33:43,220 We're not all doing everything exactly the same way. 678 00:33:43,220 --> 00:33:47,820 But you see these commonalities, for emotions like fear, 679 00:33:47,820 --> 00:33:50,100 if we look back at your disgusted faces 680 00:33:50,100 --> 00:33:52,660 when we were sending that poo-y smell out. 681 00:33:52,660 --> 00:33:54,820 You could see some similarities there. 682 00:33:54,820 --> 00:33:57,300 That's because these are examples of 683 00:33:57,300 --> 00:34:01,060 what are known as universal, or basic emotions. 684 00:34:01,060 --> 00:34:04,220 They mean the same thing wherever you go. 685 00:34:04,220 --> 00:34:07,140 Now, it's not all our emotions, it's things like fear, anger, 686 00:34:07,140 --> 00:34:09,740 and disgust, laughter, 687 00:34:09,740 --> 00:34:13,460 and they are almost like a map of human emotions 688 00:34:13,460 --> 00:34:15,580 that we can use to convey 689 00:34:15,580 --> 00:34:18,380 how we're feeling for a certain set of emotions 690 00:34:18,380 --> 00:34:22,100 that it seems all humans can experience and recognise. 691 00:34:22,100 --> 00:34:25,580 But where do these emotional expressions come from? 692 00:34:25,580 --> 00:34:28,020 Well, the fact that some of them are universal, 693 00:34:28,020 --> 00:34:30,420 you find them across all human cultures, 694 00:34:30,420 --> 00:34:35,460 is a hint that they come from deeper in our evolutionary story. 695 00:34:35,460 --> 00:34:37,780 Hello, Charlotte. Now, this is a book, 696 00:34:37,780 --> 00:34:40,740 a very special book from the RI library. 697 00:34:40,740 --> 00:34:42,180 And it's a book by Charles Darwin. 698 00:34:42,180 --> 00:34:44,620 Now, Charles Darwin is obviously very famous 699 00:34:44,620 --> 00:34:46,260 for The Origin Of Species but 700 00:34:46,260 --> 00:34:48,700 he also wrote this absolutely beautiful book 701 00:34:48,700 --> 00:34:52,300 called On The Expression Of Emotions In Man And Animals. 702 00:34:52,300 --> 00:34:54,540 Now, Charlotte, you are the archivist here 703 00:34:54,540 --> 00:34:56,460 at the Royal Institution, yeah? 704 00:34:56,460 --> 00:34:59,260 Can we have a look at some of the pictures here? 705 00:34:59,260 --> 00:35:01,620 So this is examples that Charles Darwin 706 00:35:01,620 --> 00:35:03,580 was giving of fearful faces. 707 00:35:03,580 --> 00:35:05,340 Has he got a fearful animal in there? 708 00:35:05,340 --> 00:35:10,620 So that's a fearful cat, the cat doesn't look exactly like the human, 709 00:35:10,620 --> 00:35:14,500 the faces are different, but you are getting the open mouth, 710 00:35:14,500 --> 00:35:16,660 he was trying to tease out how this could be working. 711 00:35:16,660 --> 00:35:18,540 Maybe emotions have the same function, 712 00:35:18,540 --> 00:35:19,780 in humans and other animals. 713 00:35:19,780 --> 00:35:22,260 Maybe that's why they are evolutionarily important. 714 00:35:22,260 --> 00:35:23,820 Thank you very much, Charlotte. 715 00:35:27,540 --> 00:35:30,620 And, actually, the work that Darwin started has been 716 00:35:30,620 --> 00:35:33,100 very influential over the next 150 or so years. 717 00:35:33,100 --> 00:35:35,980 Many of his ideas about these motions we share, 718 00:35:35,980 --> 00:35:37,620 across humans and other animals, 719 00:35:37,620 --> 00:35:41,460 that have this ancient evolutionary basis, really have been borne out. 720 00:35:43,300 --> 00:35:47,620 One idea about why they might look the way they do could be simply that 721 00:35:47,620 --> 00:35:50,180 they've evolved to be as distinct as possible. 722 00:35:50,180 --> 00:35:51,940 If I look frightened, you should be 723 00:35:51,940 --> 00:35:54,060 able to recognise that unambiguously, 724 00:35:54,060 --> 00:35:56,900 because if I'm frightened, you should be frightened, too. 725 00:35:56,900 --> 00:35:59,620 So these basic emotions, they can't be uncertain, 726 00:35:59,620 --> 00:36:01,020 they can't be too ambiguous. 727 00:36:01,020 --> 00:36:02,980 You need to be able to pick up on them quickly. 728 00:36:02,980 --> 00:36:06,100 So maybe that's why they look the way they do. 729 00:36:06,100 --> 00:36:11,300 But what about when we don't want to give away our emotions? 730 00:36:11,300 --> 00:36:15,860 A lot of the time, we work quite hard to cover up what we're feeling. 731 00:36:15,860 --> 00:36:19,900 Sometimes because it might be a bit difficult for the social situation, 732 00:36:19,900 --> 00:36:23,340 sometimes because some emotions are considered, in certain cultures, 733 00:36:23,340 --> 00:36:24,780 to be simply inappropriate. 734 00:36:24,780 --> 00:36:28,140 Right now, in our culture, we like to think that boys don't cry. 735 00:36:28,140 --> 00:36:29,980 Boys, you're absolutely allowed to cry, 736 00:36:29,980 --> 00:36:32,300 but we just believe it's not a very manly thing to do. 737 00:36:32,300 --> 00:36:33,900 That's just us. 738 00:36:33,900 --> 00:36:35,940 But it means that people often are 739 00:36:35,940 --> 00:36:38,020 trying to put a face out to the world, 740 00:36:38,020 --> 00:36:41,180 that might cover up the emotions they are really feeling. 741 00:36:41,180 --> 00:36:46,020 And what I'd like to do is do an experiment with you three 742 00:36:46,020 --> 00:36:50,460 to see if we can find out which of you is good at doing this. 743 00:36:50,460 --> 00:36:53,940 Now, to do this what I have are three delicious sweets. 744 00:36:53,940 --> 00:36:56,540 And I would like you each to choose a delicious sweet. 745 00:36:58,100 --> 00:37:00,940 Don't put it in your mouth just yet, take the tissue as well. 746 00:37:03,020 --> 00:37:05,820 Now, before you put them in your mouths, I have to tell you, 747 00:37:05,820 --> 00:37:09,260 one of these delicious sweets is not even slightly delicious. 748 00:37:09,260 --> 00:37:11,940 It's absolutely horrible. What we are going to do - 749 00:37:11,940 --> 00:37:13,660 I don't know which one's got it - 750 00:37:13,660 --> 00:37:16,340 we're going to ask you to put those in your mouths in just a second, 751 00:37:16,340 --> 00:37:18,660 and we're all going to look at you 752 00:37:18,660 --> 00:37:23,140 and see if we can work out which one of you has got the horrible sweet. 753 00:37:23,140 --> 00:37:25,900 So your job is to try and pretend that you're absolutely fine, 754 00:37:25,900 --> 00:37:28,780 you've got a delicious one. OK? We good? 755 00:37:28,780 --> 00:37:32,420 Are we going to count them down? Three, two, 756 00:37:32,420 --> 00:37:33,340 one. 757 00:37:46,900 --> 00:37:48,900 I'm getting something here as well. 758 00:37:50,300 --> 00:37:52,140 Oh. 759 00:37:52,140 --> 00:37:56,340 Now, who thinks this person has the horrible sweet? 760 00:37:58,540 --> 00:38:01,340 Who thinks you've got a horrible sweet? 761 00:38:02,580 --> 00:38:05,180 Who thinks you've got the horrible sweet? 762 00:38:05,180 --> 00:38:07,820 Actually, they've all got horrible sweets, I'm a liar, OK. 763 00:38:07,820 --> 00:38:11,540 They are all horrible sweets. You can spit them out if you want to. 764 00:38:11,540 --> 00:38:13,940 Apparently, if you keep going they become acceptable. 765 00:38:13,940 --> 00:38:16,580 But...you don't have to. 766 00:38:16,580 --> 00:38:19,860 The point here is that even though they were trying very, very hard, 767 00:38:19,860 --> 00:38:23,020 everybody thought they were the only one with a horrible sweet. 768 00:38:23,020 --> 00:38:24,700 But little bits of it were coming through. 769 00:38:24,700 --> 00:38:27,580 We leak through our real feelings all the time, 770 00:38:27,580 --> 00:38:30,580 even if we're trying to control what we look like. 771 00:38:30,580 --> 00:38:33,180 And, of course, that can mean, in reality, 772 00:38:33,180 --> 00:38:37,100 it can be quite complex to work out what someone's face is saying. 773 00:38:37,100 --> 00:38:39,300 There can be a lot of things that they want to express, 774 00:38:39,300 --> 00:38:43,020 and that they are trying to hide, on their face, all at the same time. 775 00:38:44,740 --> 00:38:49,380 What does that mean for people who might encounter challenges when they 776 00:38:49,380 --> 00:38:51,780 are trying to understand other people's emotions? 777 00:38:52,940 --> 00:38:55,740 All this complexity in what faces say 778 00:38:55,740 --> 00:39:00,180 can create real issues for people on the autism spectrum - 779 00:39:00,180 --> 00:39:02,020 real issues recognising what other 780 00:39:02,020 --> 00:39:04,020 people's emotions mean, and, of course, 781 00:39:04,020 --> 00:39:07,180 what their own emotions might be conveying. 782 00:39:07,180 --> 00:39:11,380 I'd like to introduce a robot who is a potential way to help. 783 00:39:11,380 --> 00:39:13,780 Please welcome Zeno the robot 784 00:39:13,780 --> 00:39:16,420 and Dr Alyssa Alcorn from UCL, 785 00:39:16,420 --> 00:39:18,060 part of the DE-ENIGMA project. 786 00:39:25,660 --> 00:39:27,460 Hello, Zeno. 787 00:39:31,380 --> 00:39:32,340 Hey. 788 00:39:34,740 --> 00:39:37,980 Alyssa, how is Zeno going to help? 789 00:39:39,300 --> 00:39:43,740 On the DE-ENIGMA project we're using the Zeno robots as teachers, 790 00:39:43,740 --> 00:39:47,140 as part of a programme working with children on the autism spectrum, 791 00:39:47,140 --> 00:39:50,060 to help them learn about facial expressions 792 00:39:50,060 --> 00:39:52,980 and tell different facial expressions apart, 793 00:39:52,980 --> 00:39:55,060 what they are called, what they mean. 794 00:39:55,060 --> 00:39:58,540 And this will help them in their everyday social interaction. 795 00:39:58,540 --> 00:40:00,180 Fantastic. 796 00:40:00,180 --> 00:40:02,300 Can we find out more about how he works, 797 00:40:02,300 --> 00:40:04,740 or is it easier to do that with a volunteer? 798 00:40:04,740 --> 00:40:08,660 I think it is, actually. OK, now, I'd like you... 799 00:40:08,660 --> 00:40:10,340 You can put your hands down. 800 00:40:10,340 --> 00:40:12,300 Just pull your angriest face, 801 00:40:12,300 --> 00:40:14,500 and I'm going to try and find a very good actor. 802 00:40:14,500 --> 00:40:15,500 A really angry face. 803 00:40:16,540 --> 00:40:18,660 Very, very angry faces. 804 00:40:18,660 --> 00:40:23,820 There is a fantastic angry face there, with antlers, can I have you, 805 00:40:23,820 --> 00:40:25,580 angry man? Thank you very much. 806 00:40:32,260 --> 00:40:33,940 Now, just stand there. 807 00:40:33,940 --> 00:40:35,980 Can you tell me your name? Addy. 808 00:40:35,980 --> 00:40:37,220 Addy? Fantastic. 809 00:40:37,220 --> 00:40:39,020 Can you just come and sit here? 810 00:40:39,020 --> 00:40:40,900 What we are going to ask you to do 811 00:40:40,900 --> 00:40:44,980 is pull some emotional faces at Zeno. 812 00:40:44,980 --> 00:40:46,980 And we're going to see - look on the screen here - 813 00:40:46,980 --> 00:40:50,500 we'll see how Zeno is seeing that face. Is that right? 814 00:40:50,500 --> 00:40:52,540 So, let's have a look up here. 815 00:40:52,540 --> 00:40:56,700 And we see we've got this green box that appears over his face, 816 00:40:56,700 --> 00:41:00,460 and it's tracking 49 different points on his face, 817 00:41:00,460 --> 00:41:02,340 each little red dot there. 818 00:41:02,340 --> 00:41:06,180 And if you start moving your face for Zeno... 819 00:41:06,180 --> 00:41:07,740 See, the picture is moving, too. 820 00:41:07,740 --> 00:41:09,740 And it's tracking those points, where they are, 821 00:41:09,740 --> 00:41:11,580 how they are moving over time, 822 00:41:11,580 --> 00:41:16,180 and then is using a machine learning process, using statistics, 823 00:41:16,180 --> 00:41:19,180 to estimate what kind of face it thinks he's showing. 824 00:41:19,180 --> 00:41:22,660 So if we look down here, right now, it thinks he's smiling. 825 00:41:22,660 --> 00:41:24,460 I think that looks like a pretty good smile. 826 00:41:24,460 --> 00:41:26,820 That's a great smile. Yeah. 827 00:41:26,820 --> 00:41:28,420 Shall we try a different expression? 828 00:41:28,420 --> 00:41:29,900 Could you look frightened for us, 829 00:41:29,900 --> 00:41:31,260 could you pull a screaming face? 830 00:41:33,100 --> 00:41:36,700 So what's happening now is it's taking all those points there, 831 00:41:36,700 --> 00:41:40,300 and using them like instructions for the robot's face. 832 00:41:40,300 --> 00:41:43,620 It's telling him how to move the motors in his face, 833 00:41:43,620 --> 00:41:47,180 so he's making the same expression, at almost the same time. 834 00:41:47,180 --> 00:41:48,700 Fantastic, fantastic. 835 00:41:48,700 --> 00:41:50,220 Can we try the smile again, then? 836 00:41:50,220 --> 00:41:53,020 Turn your face back up. There we go. That's more like it. 837 00:41:53,020 --> 00:41:54,540 Zeno is smiling, too. 838 00:41:54,540 --> 00:41:57,180 You have an officially intense smile, that's quite impressive. 839 00:41:57,180 --> 00:41:58,820 Thank you very much. 840 00:41:58,820 --> 00:42:00,820 Thank you, Alyssa. Thank you. 841 00:42:03,500 --> 00:42:05,380 Thank you, Addy. Thank you. 842 00:42:10,260 --> 00:42:13,620 It's really exciting to see how these modern-day robotics could be 843 00:42:13,620 --> 00:42:17,420 possibly used to really help people who are struggling to understand the 844 00:42:17,420 --> 00:42:20,420 nuances of facial expressions. 845 00:42:20,420 --> 00:42:23,500 We've seen how amazingly complex facial expressions 846 00:42:23,500 --> 00:42:25,460 can be on their own in humans, 847 00:42:25,460 --> 00:42:26,980 but there's another part of our face 848 00:42:26,980 --> 00:42:30,300 that communicates even more - our eyes. 849 00:42:30,300 --> 00:42:35,420 In contrast to other mammals, humans have got very, very different eyes. 850 00:42:35,420 --> 00:42:37,540 Our eyes are the same structure, 851 00:42:37,540 --> 00:42:41,220 we've got the whites of the eyes, a pupil, and the iris. 852 00:42:41,220 --> 00:42:44,420 But in all other mammals you can only see the iris and the pupil. 853 00:42:44,420 --> 00:42:46,140 In human eyes you can absolutely 854 00:42:46,140 --> 00:42:48,220 always see the whites of the eyes around that. 855 00:42:48,220 --> 00:42:50,140 You are seeing the sclera. 856 00:42:50,140 --> 00:42:52,420 And that seems to do two things. 857 00:42:52,420 --> 00:42:56,620 It makes the eyes really stand out, our eyes are very high contrast, 858 00:42:56,620 --> 00:42:58,180 very visible things. 859 00:42:58,180 --> 00:43:01,500 And also, it lets us be very, very sensitive 860 00:43:01,500 --> 00:43:05,300 to where exactly someone is looking. 861 00:43:05,300 --> 00:43:08,620 And we use that all the time when we're having communication, 862 00:43:08,620 --> 00:43:10,220 when we're talking to each other. 863 00:43:10,220 --> 00:43:12,020 So if I just do a quick demonstration here, 864 00:43:12,020 --> 00:43:13,980 I'm going to look down this camera. 865 00:43:13,980 --> 00:43:16,380 And I'm going to tell you when I move my eyes, 866 00:43:16,380 --> 00:43:19,180 and I want you to tell me if I'm looking directly at you, 867 00:43:19,180 --> 00:43:20,980 or if I'm looking away. 868 00:43:20,980 --> 00:43:22,540 OK. I'll start with my eyes closed, 869 00:43:22,540 --> 00:43:25,300 and I'll try and move them every time I open my eyes. 870 00:43:25,300 --> 00:43:26,220 OK. 871 00:43:27,580 --> 00:43:28,980 At you or away? 872 00:43:30,500 --> 00:43:31,500 At me. 873 00:43:32,580 --> 00:43:34,660 Away. 874 00:43:34,660 --> 00:43:39,460 Now, you're picking really, really tiny movements of my eyes up there. 875 00:43:39,460 --> 00:43:43,540 I was actually moving my eyes only just to the side of the camera. 876 00:43:43,540 --> 00:43:46,620 About two degrees of the whole visual scene around me. 877 00:43:46,620 --> 00:43:48,580 So a minuscule amount. 878 00:43:48,580 --> 00:43:51,540 We are incredibly sensitive to this, and what we do with that 879 00:43:51,540 --> 00:43:56,220 is we use a lot of information about who someone is talking to, 880 00:43:56,220 --> 00:43:57,620 what they are talking about, 881 00:43:57,620 --> 00:44:00,300 and who they are talking about. 882 00:44:00,300 --> 00:44:02,860 And we use it all the time. 883 00:44:02,860 --> 00:44:04,420 Now, thanks for this, 884 00:44:04,420 --> 00:44:05,860 I just want to ask you, do you think, 885 00:44:05,860 --> 00:44:07,980 if I throw this sweet in the air... 886 00:44:07,980 --> 00:44:09,980 ..I'll be able to catch it? 887 00:44:09,980 --> 00:44:12,340 I'm very good at this. OK. 888 00:44:12,340 --> 00:44:13,620 Let's try this. 889 00:44:16,500 --> 00:44:19,220 That wasn't very satisfactory, was it? Let's try again. 890 00:44:22,380 --> 00:44:24,500 OK. That's better. Let's try a higher one. 891 00:44:26,820 --> 00:44:28,940 OK. Now, can you throw this to me? 892 00:44:32,100 --> 00:44:34,780 Oh, thank you. Now, can you throw it to me? 893 00:44:36,580 --> 00:44:39,020 Mate, stop it, thank you. 894 00:44:39,020 --> 00:44:42,580 Now, obviously, there were no sweets there whatsoever. 895 00:44:42,580 --> 00:44:44,220 It was just a trick. 896 00:44:44,220 --> 00:44:47,100 What I was doing was looking at where there was nothing, 897 00:44:47,100 --> 00:44:49,180 and I was pointing at where there was nothing, 898 00:44:49,180 --> 00:44:51,380 and I was pretending to hold nothing, 899 00:44:51,380 --> 00:44:53,420 and we all just start looking at nothing 900 00:44:53,420 --> 00:44:55,860 and pretending that I am throwing something in the air 901 00:44:55,860 --> 00:44:59,420 and catching it in my bag. This is the same thing that we're using 902 00:44:59,420 --> 00:45:01,580 when we use eye gaze in conversation 903 00:45:01,580 --> 00:45:03,580 for kind of capturing attention. 904 00:45:03,580 --> 00:45:05,940 We are focusing attention on who we are talking to, 905 00:45:05,940 --> 00:45:07,100 who we are talking about. 906 00:45:08,340 --> 00:45:11,500 For a long time, it was thought this kind of joint attention 907 00:45:11,500 --> 00:45:13,700 was something that only humans could do. 908 00:45:13,700 --> 00:45:17,020 It's turned out other animals can do this, too. 909 00:45:17,020 --> 00:45:20,020 Dogs understand what pointing means. 910 00:45:20,020 --> 00:45:22,620 And even, it turns out, some birds 911 00:45:22,620 --> 00:45:25,420 can understand what eye gaze means. 912 00:45:25,420 --> 00:45:29,700 Ravens are one of the few animals that seem to understand this. 913 00:45:29,700 --> 00:45:32,020 They understand what it means when something is looking. 914 00:45:33,220 --> 00:45:35,620 And I'd like you to give a not too loud clap 915 00:45:35,620 --> 00:45:37,900 to a very fantastic raven called Bran, 916 00:45:37,900 --> 00:45:39,740 and his owner, Lloyd Buck. 917 00:45:42,980 --> 00:45:44,860 Hello. Hello, Lloyd. 918 00:45:44,860 --> 00:45:46,660 Hello. 919 00:45:46,660 --> 00:45:48,740 Hello, Bran. Now, Lloyd, 920 00:45:48,740 --> 00:45:51,860 do you get the feeling that Bran uses information about where you're 921 00:45:51,860 --> 00:45:55,260 looking? Yes, very much so. Can we see an example of that, Lloyd? 922 00:45:55,260 --> 00:45:59,500 We certainly can. Now, Bran has a special stone, he knows that word. 923 00:45:59,500 --> 00:46:01,180 And it's hidden somewhere in this room. 924 00:46:01,180 --> 00:46:02,780 So if I let him eat that piece of food, 925 00:46:02,780 --> 00:46:05,380 then I'll say, where's your stone, Bran? Where is it? 926 00:46:05,380 --> 00:46:09,260 And he's looking, and then if I look, where's your stone, Bran? 927 00:46:13,860 --> 00:46:15,660 He did. He was really looking. 928 00:46:15,660 --> 00:46:19,140 He looked around, and then looked where you were looking. 929 00:46:19,140 --> 00:46:21,420 There's your stone. 930 00:46:21,420 --> 00:46:24,660 Now, Bran. That's a good boy. Thank you very much. 931 00:46:24,660 --> 00:46:27,620 Luckily, Bran chose the person in 932 00:46:27,620 --> 00:46:29,580 the room we know is most easily scared. 933 00:46:29,580 --> 00:46:32,300 Are you going to be OK? 934 00:46:33,900 --> 00:46:38,100 That's amazing. But why would ravens be particularly good at this ability 935 00:46:38,100 --> 00:46:41,500 to understand what it means when something is looking somewhere? 936 00:46:41,500 --> 00:46:43,500 Well, it could be because it's very 937 00:46:43,500 --> 00:46:46,140 useful as a way of helping them solve problems. 938 00:46:46,140 --> 00:46:47,260 These are birds that have 939 00:46:47,260 --> 00:46:49,540 to solve a lot of problems in the wild, aren't they? 940 00:46:49,540 --> 00:46:51,500 Before we actually go into an example of this, 941 00:46:51,500 --> 00:46:55,980 we're just going to show you how good Bran is at solving problems. 942 00:46:55,980 --> 00:47:01,300 And we've got here a puzzle box Bran hasn't seen before. 943 00:47:01,300 --> 00:47:03,980 It's got some food in it that Bran is going to want. 944 00:47:03,980 --> 00:47:06,340 And what we are going to do is show it to him, 945 00:47:06,340 --> 00:47:08,140 and he's going to work out how to 946 00:47:08,140 --> 00:47:11,820 solve the problem of getting through to the stuff he wants in the middle. 947 00:47:11,820 --> 00:47:14,180 Is that OK? Are we all right to begin? Yeah, we certainly are. 948 00:47:15,620 --> 00:47:17,060 Go on, then, Bran. 949 00:47:19,220 --> 00:47:21,100 He's got to work out how to get into that... 950 00:47:34,340 --> 00:47:36,180 Unbelievable. 951 00:47:45,060 --> 00:47:47,060 That's it. 952 00:47:47,060 --> 00:47:49,340 I've made it hard for him, this is not an easy one. 953 00:47:51,100 --> 00:47:54,060 He just gave us a right look, like, "Oh, come on!" 954 00:47:58,580 --> 00:47:59,500 Wow. 955 00:48:04,340 --> 00:48:05,980 So he's got to pull the string. 956 00:48:05,980 --> 00:48:08,460 Yeah. This is an emotional roller-coaster. 957 00:48:08,460 --> 00:48:11,540 He'll get it. There we go, fantastic, well done. 958 00:48:14,700 --> 00:48:15,900 Well done, Bran. 959 00:48:17,460 --> 00:48:19,420 Now, in the wild, 960 00:48:19,420 --> 00:48:22,740 a bird like Bran has got to solve puzzles and problems all the time. 961 00:48:22,740 --> 00:48:25,300 And one of them is there are lots of birds like Bran out there 962 00:48:25,300 --> 00:48:28,580 who are also very clever, so when Bran wants to hide his food, 963 00:48:28,580 --> 00:48:32,660 he has got to find some way of tricking other birds 964 00:48:32,660 --> 00:48:34,340 if they are looking at him. 965 00:48:34,340 --> 00:48:39,700 Now, I've got a clip of a bird doing some deception, 966 00:48:39,700 --> 00:48:43,740 a bird using communication to lie to other birds. 967 00:48:43,740 --> 00:48:45,820 But Bran really dislikes videos. 968 00:48:45,820 --> 00:48:47,740 So we're going to say thank you to Lloyd, 969 00:48:47,740 --> 00:48:50,380 and thank you to the extremely clever Bran before we show that. 970 00:48:50,380 --> 00:48:51,900 Thank you. 971 00:48:55,500 --> 00:48:58,220 This is a bird that is being watched by other birds, 972 00:48:58,220 --> 00:49:00,020 who all saw her bury her food earlier. 973 00:49:01,260 --> 00:49:03,260 Now she knows they are no longer watching, 974 00:49:03,260 --> 00:49:05,340 she's hiding the food elsewhere. 975 00:49:05,340 --> 00:49:07,540 This is typical of raven and crow behaviour. 976 00:49:07,540 --> 00:49:09,540 So, this is an example of ravens 977 00:49:09,540 --> 00:49:12,140 using their understanding of eye gaze to 978 00:49:12,140 --> 00:49:13,420 help them solve the problem, 979 00:49:13,420 --> 00:49:15,860 of how they stop other ravens from stealing all their food. 980 00:49:16,940 --> 00:49:18,420 And it's an interesting point, 981 00:49:18,420 --> 00:49:20,940 that what you're seeing is them using deception 982 00:49:20,940 --> 00:49:23,780 as a way of covering up what they really want to do. 983 00:49:23,780 --> 00:49:28,300 But, of course, deception is still a form of communication. 984 00:49:28,300 --> 00:49:30,700 So we've seen how much we can communicate 985 00:49:30,700 --> 00:49:32,620 with our bodies and our faces, 986 00:49:32,620 --> 00:49:36,220 even if we choose not to, or were trying to fake it. 987 00:49:36,220 --> 00:49:37,900 There is a very basic communication 988 00:49:37,900 --> 00:49:41,140 we do all the time that we're normally a lot less aware of. 989 00:49:41,140 --> 00:49:44,980 And this is how we communicate a lot of friendship and affection, 990 00:49:44,980 --> 00:49:46,900 and affiliation with other people, 991 00:49:46,900 --> 00:49:49,060 by picking up little bits of behaviour, 992 00:49:49,060 --> 00:49:52,100 falling into the same things that they are doing. 993 00:49:52,100 --> 00:49:54,460 A lot of the time, we often do this 994 00:49:54,460 --> 00:49:57,100 without even noticing we're doing it. 995 00:49:57,100 --> 00:49:59,740 A few days ago we filmed two of you going for a walk together. 996 00:49:59,740 --> 00:50:02,500 Are you here? We filmed you walking. 997 00:50:02,500 --> 00:50:03,900 We've got a short clip of this here. 998 00:50:05,980 --> 00:50:07,780 Notice what they are already doing. 999 00:50:09,100 --> 00:50:11,060 They are walking in step with each other. 1000 00:50:12,180 --> 00:50:14,300 When you walk alongside somebody else, 1001 00:50:14,300 --> 00:50:17,740 you more often than not walk at the same rate as they walk, 1002 00:50:17,740 --> 00:50:21,060 even if they are a very different height from you. 1003 00:50:21,060 --> 00:50:22,780 And that's an example of this kind of 1004 00:50:22,780 --> 00:50:24,740 picking up other people's behaviour. 1005 00:50:24,740 --> 00:50:26,420 Just falling in with what they are doing, 1006 00:50:26,420 --> 00:50:28,260 without even realising that you're doing it. 1007 00:50:28,260 --> 00:50:30,780 You're doing a basic, friendly thing. 1008 00:50:39,380 --> 00:50:42,300 Now, you just very politely clapped along with me then. 1009 00:50:42,300 --> 00:50:44,460 I had no reason to clap, their walking was good, 1010 00:50:44,460 --> 00:50:47,460 it wasn't quite clap, was it? Now, what you are doing is, 1011 00:50:47,460 --> 00:50:50,100 you started clapping because I started clapping. 1012 00:50:50,100 --> 00:50:53,900 Another example of this, joining in, this, kind of, contagious behaviour. 1013 00:50:53,900 --> 00:50:55,460 Studies have shown people in 1014 00:50:55,460 --> 00:50:57,580 audiences are much more likely to clap if 1015 00:50:57,580 --> 00:50:59,980 somebody near them starts clapping, than if they don't. 1016 00:50:59,980 --> 00:51:02,580 It just spreads through the audience, like we just did then. 1017 00:51:02,580 --> 00:51:05,100 And, in fact, this kind of contagious behaviour, 1018 00:51:05,100 --> 00:51:07,820 where you join in with what other people are doing, 1019 00:51:07,820 --> 00:51:09,180 is extremely common. 1020 00:51:09,180 --> 00:51:13,260 Laughter, which I study, for example, is highly contagious. 1021 00:51:13,260 --> 00:51:15,060 In fact, you are primed to laugh, 1022 00:51:15,060 --> 00:51:17,140 just by other people being around you. 1023 00:51:17,140 --> 00:51:19,060 You're 13 times more likely to laugh 1024 00:51:19,060 --> 00:51:20,980 if there is somebody else with you, 1025 00:51:20,980 --> 00:51:22,980 than if you are on your own. 1026 00:51:22,980 --> 00:51:25,300 And these contagious behaviours 1027 00:51:25,300 --> 00:51:28,700 are still a very important form of communication. 1028 00:51:29,820 --> 00:51:31,340 Why does it happen? 1029 00:51:31,340 --> 00:51:34,820 What triggers it? Well, this is a picture from a recent study... 1030 00:51:36,420 --> 00:51:37,700 ..that we did at UCL. 1031 00:51:37,700 --> 00:51:40,620 This is showing the brain networks activated 1032 00:51:40,620 --> 00:51:44,460 in teenage boys when they listened to laughter. 1033 00:51:44,460 --> 00:51:47,540 What we are seeing is a couple of different networks 1034 00:51:47,540 --> 00:51:50,540 actually being driven by listening to laughter. 1035 00:51:50,540 --> 00:51:51,620 These areas here... 1036 00:51:53,100 --> 00:51:55,420 ..those are auditory parts of the brain. 1037 00:51:55,420 --> 00:51:56,980 And what they are doing is they are 1038 00:51:56,980 --> 00:51:58,620 processing the sound of the laughter. 1039 00:51:58,620 --> 00:51:59,940 These areas here... 1040 00:52:01,940 --> 00:52:03,340 ..up there, and down there, 1041 00:52:03,340 --> 00:52:06,180 those are brain areas associated with producing movements. 1042 00:52:06,180 --> 00:52:08,940 What we are actually seeing here is when you listen to laughter, 1043 00:52:08,940 --> 00:52:10,740 even if you're having your brain scanned, 1044 00:52:10,740 --> 00:52:12,540 which is not remotely funny, 1045 00:52:12,540 --> 00:52:15,140 you are getting ready to join in. 1046 00:52:15,140 --> 00:52:18,580 Why on Earth would it be a useful form of communication 1047 00:52:18,580 --> 00:52:21,620 to just join in with what somebody else is doing? 1048 00:52:22,820 --> 00:52:25,180 Well, it's probably because we are social animals. 1049 00:52:25,180 --> 00:52:28,100 We rely on other members of our group for survival. 1050 00:52:28,100 --> 00:52:29,780 Picking up little bits of other 1051 00:52:29,780 --> 00:52:31,860 people's behaviour and joining in with them, 1052 00:52:31,860 --> 00:52:33,540 or reflecting back to them, 1053 00:52:33,540 --> 00:52:38,100 is a really quick and efficient communication that you know someone. 1054 00:52:38,100 --> 00:52:39,540 You like someone. 1055 00:52:39,540 --> 00:52:43,580 And this form of communication, by joint action, may, in fact, 1056 00:52:43,580 --> 00:52:47,260 be one of the most important things we ever do. 1057 00:52:47,260 --> 00:52:50,820 So we've seen how we can get across our thoughts, feelings, 1058 00:52:50,820 --> 00:52:55,220 our intentions, without necessarily ever uttering a word. 1059 00:52:55,220 --> 00:52:59,420 But all these forms of communication involve us using our senses to pick 1060 00:52:59,420 --> 00:53:03,180 up the messages - we are smelling things, we are seeing things - 1061 00:53:03,180 --> 00:53:06,660 could there be a possible future of silent communication 1062 00:53:06,660 --> 00:53:09,460 where we just communicate directly, brain to brain? 1063 00:53:10,860 --> 00:53:14,940 Well, 40 years ago, someone at NASA definitely thought so. 1064 00:53:16,140 --> 00:53:20,380 It's 40 years now since the two Voyager space probes left the Earth. 1065 00:53:20,380 --> 00:53:22,740 They each carry a Golden Record. 1066 00:53:22,740 --> 00:53:26,740 A bit like this. And there's a sound on the Golden Records, 1067 00:53:26,740 --> 00:53:28,300 that not many people know about. 1068 00:53:28,300 --> 00:53:36,060 LOW GRINDING HUM 1069 00:53:36,060 --> 00:53:39,700 Now, those are electrical signals from someone's brain. 1070 00:53:39,700 --> 00:53:42,700 And they've been converted into a sound that we can hear. 1071 00:53:42,700 --> 00:53:47,460 The idea behind including these on the record was that an alien species 1072 00:53:47,460 --> 00:53:52,540 might be able to read the thoughts that lie behind those brainwaves. 1073 00:53:52,540 --> 00:53:55,780 Now, reading brainwaves sounds like science fiction. 1074 00:53:55,780 --> 00:53:59,380 How far off the mark were they 40 years ago? 1075 00:53:59,380 --> 00:54:00,900 Well, Dr Ioannis Zoulias 1076 00:54:00,900 --> 00:54:03,460 and his colleagues from the University of Reading 1077 00:54:03,460 --> 00:54:05,700 have devised an experiment to see 1078 00:54:05,700 --> 00:54:09,180 if we can prove whether or not this is at all possible. 1079 00:54:09,180 --> 00:54:11,820 We've pre-selected a volunteer, Hannah, 1080 00:54:11,820 --> 00:54:15,460 to be the person who's going to send us a message from her brain. 1081 00:54:15,460 --> 00:54:18,100 She's sitting at the other end of the RI building. 1082 00:54:19,220 --> 00:54:21,020 She's wearing a headset, 1083 00:54:21,020 --> 00:54:25,020 and that headset is measuring, detecting and measuring, 1084 00:54:25,020 --> 00:54:28,300 the electrical activity inside her brain. 1085 00:54:28,300 --> 00:54:31,380 On the screen in front of her are two squares. 1086 00:54:31,380 --> 00:54:33,700 One is yellow, one's red. 1087 00:54:33,700 --> 00:54:36,780 And we're going to tell Hannah which one to look at, 1088 00:54:36,780 --> 00:54:39,260 and we're going to read from her brainwaves, 1089 00:54:39,260 --> 00:54:41,740 and try and decode that information. 1090 00:54:44,180 --> 00:54:48,620 Hannah's mother, Rashima, is going to receive this message. 1091 00:54:48,620 --> 00:54:51,820 Now, Rashima, you've got electrodes on your arms, haven't you? 1092 00:54:51,820 --> 00:54:53,620 So that suggests you might be 1093 00:54:53,620 --> 00:54:56,820 receiving that information via painful electrical shock. 1094 00:54:56,820 --> 00:55:00,780 And we're also going to need you to wear this blindfold, 1095 00:55:00,780 --> 00:55:03,020 so we definitely know that you can 1096 00:55:03,020 --> 00:55:06,860 only be getting the information through the signals to your arms. 1097 00:55:06,860 --> 00:55:08,900 And you're going to press one of these two buttons, 1098 00:55:08,900 --> 00:55:10,300 depending on if it's your left 1099 00:55:10,300 --> 00:55:14,380 or your right arm that is getting the signal. 1100 00:55:14,380 --> 00:55:15,500 Sure. OK. 1101 00:55:17,820 --> 00:55:20,060 We've been testing this all day, 1102 00:55:20,060 --> 00:55:22,060 we've got nine results now, 1103 00:55:22,060 --> 00:55:23,380 and we're going to run the tenth 1104 00:55:23,380 --> 00:55:26,060 and final trial here. 1105 00:55:26,060 --> 00:55:27,620 For this last trial I need a 1106 00:55:27,620 --> 00:55:31,020 volunteer to select a message that we're going to send to Hannah. 1107 00:55:31,020 --> 00:55:32,780 Yellow or red? 1108 00:55:32,780 --> 00:55:34,540 OK. Can I ask you? 1109 00:55:36,060 --> 00:55:37,060 Just pick one of those. 1110 00:55:38,700 --> 00:55:42,820 Don't open it. This is the one you picked, get rid of that one. 1111 00:55:44,340 --> 00:55:46,540 Thank you. 1112 00:55:46,540 --> 00:55:48,580 Now, I'm going to give this to Natalie, 1113 00:55:48,580 --> 00:55:50,340 she's going to run this down to Hannah, 1114 00:55:50,340 --> 00:55:52,700 and she's going to show it to Hannah, 1115 00:55:52,700 --> 00:55:55,020 and we don't know what this says. 1116 00:55:55,020 --> 00:55:58,060 So what the computer is going to do is try and decode the activity in 1117 00:55:58,060 --> 00:56:01,140 Hannah's brain, and send this to Rashima's arms. 1118 00:56:01,140 --> 00:56:03,100 OK. Natalie, 1119 00:56:03,100 --> 00:56:05,460 can I just give you this? Have a very quick look. 1120 00:56:05,460 --> 00:56:08,220 Thank you very much. 1121 00:56:08,220 --> 00:56:11,940 When Hannah gets the paper she'll look at the chosen colour, 1122 00:56:11,940 --> 00:56:14,260 and the computer will interpret her brainwaves 1123 00:56:14,260 --> 00:56:17,940 and stimulate either Rashima's right or left arm. 1124 00:56:17,940 --> 00:56:19,380 There is Hannah. 1125 00:56:22,420 --> 00:56:24,420 OK, so Hannah is going to look at the screen, 1126 00:56:24,420 --> 00:56:26,340 she's looking at one of those two squares. 1127 00:56:34,140 --> 00:56:36,660 Which button is it going to be? 1128 00:56:36,660 --> 00:56:40,340 Red. Amazing, it's right. 1129 00:56:40,340 --> 00:56:41,500 Fantastic. 1130 00:56:46,380 --> 00:56:50,060 That makes ten out of ten successful trials we've run today. 1131 00:56:50,060 --> 00:56:54,180 And I think that definitely deserves a very big finish. 1132 00:56:54,180 --> 00:56:56,900 So what we're going to do is blow some stuff up. 1133 00:56:56,900 --> 00:57:00,020 This is going to be some noise. 1134 00:57:00,020 --> 00:57:03,060 Count me down, three, two, one... 1135 00:57:14,420 --> 00:57:18,180 I love the smell of burning balloons. 1136 00:57:18,180 --> 00:57:19,900 It smells like science! 1137 00:57:19,900 --> 00:57:21,620 Now, this is just a teeny, 1138 00:57:21,620 --> 00:57:23,580 tiny step towards the idea of being 1139 00:57:23,580 --> 00:57:26,660 able to send information directly from brain to brain. 1140 00:57:26,660 --> 00:57:29,500 We are nowhere near being able to communicate complex 1141 00:57:29,500 --> 00:57:31,900 thoughts via an electrical signal. 1142 00:57:31,900 --> 00:57:35,300 The average adult, for example, knows 35,000 words. 1143 00:57:35,300 --> 00:57:37,220 You would need a lot of electrodes 1144 00:57:37,220 --> 00:57:41,060 to be able to know which one of those that person was thinking of. 1145 00:57:41,060 --> 00:57:45,020 But every science has to start somewhere. 1146 00:57:45,020 --> 00:57:47,540 And maybe NASA weren't that far off 1147 00:57:47,540 --> 00:57:51,580 the mark with their recording for the aliens. 1148 00:57:51,580 --> 00:57:53,860 What I hope I've shown in this lecture is that we 1149 00:57:53,860 --> 00:57:55,260 and other animals already 1150 00:57:55,260 --> 00:57:57,580 communicate vast amounts of information in a 1151 00:57:57,580 --> 00:57:59,260 huge variety of ways, 1152 00:57:59,260 --> 00:58:02,420 without ever opening our mouths. 1153 00:58:02,420 --> 00:58:05,820 Now, we humans, we might not be using smells to communicate, 1154 00:58:05,820 --> 00:58:07,460 but we've replaced that with 1155 00:58:07,460 --> 00:58:10,580 an incredible ability to exchange messages with our bodies, 1156 00:58:10,580 --> 00:58:13,460 our faces, and our eyes. 1157 00:58:13,460 --> 00:58:18,780 If you can't pick up on this world of silent signals and hidden codes, 1158 00:58:18,780 --> 00:58:23,700 then you are definitely not getting the full story. 1159 00:58:23,700 --> 00:58:24,780 Thank you.